Detailed Summary
In the early 19th century, the East India Company officials realized that the Permanent Settlement system established in 1793 was not effective. Land revenues were fixed permanently, which became unsustainable as the Company needed more funds for administration and trade. In response to this crisis, new systems of revenue collection were devised.
The Mahalwari Settlement
Under the mahalwari system implemented in the North Western Provinces in 1822, Holt Mackenzie emphasized the importance of villages as social structures. This system involved:
- Periodic revenue assessment: Revenue demands were reassessed periodically rather than fixed permanently.
- Village headman’s role: Revenue collection was assigned to the village headman instead of zamindars, fostering a direct relationship with the cultivators (ryots).
The Ryotwari System
Simultaneously, the ryotwari system emerged in southern India under Thomas Munro. Key features included:
- Direct engagement with ryots: The focus was on individual cultivators, as there were few traditional zamindars in the southern regions.
- Land surveys: Fields were surveyed to assess land and implement fair revenue collection.
Despite these improvements, both systems faced significant challenges such as high revenue demands, leading to difficulties for peasants. The longing for change led to increased tensions and eventual resistance among the agricultural community, highlighting the systemic adversities under British rule.