1.2. The Making of Nationalism in Europe

If you look at the map of mid-eighteenth-century Europe you will find that there were no ‘nation-states’ as we know them today. Some important dates include:

• 1797: Napoleon invades Italy; Napoleonic wars begin.
• 1814-1815: Fall of Napoleon; the Vienna Peace Settlement.
• 1821: Greek struggle for independence begins.
• 1848: Revolutions in Europe; artisans, industrial workers and peasants revolt against economic hardships; middle classes demand constitutions and representative governments; Italians, Germans, Magyars, Poles, Czechs, etc. demand nation-states.

In the mid-18th century, Europe was fragmented into numerous kingdoms and territories with no clear concept of the modern nation-state. This means that countries like Germany, Italy, and Switzerland did not exist as unified nations but were composed of various principalities and territories without shared national identity.

Think of Europe during this time like a jigsaw puzzle, where each piece is a different kingdom or territory that does not fit together to form a picture. Just as puzzle pieces can be small or of different shapes and colors, the territories in Europe were diverse, each with its own unique culture and identity.

Socially and politically, a landed aristocracy was the dominant class on the continent. The members of this class were united by a common way of life that cut across regional divisions. They owned estates in the countryside and also town-houses, spoke French for diplomatic purposes, and their families were often connected by ties of marriage. However, this powerful aristocracy was numerically a small group; the majority of the population was made up of the peasantry.

During this time, the aristocracy held significant power and influence, but they represented only a small segment of the population. The majority consisted of peasants who worked the land. This created a social structure where the upper class lived in wealth and luxury while the lower class faced hardships, which eventually led to calls for change and the emergence of a new middle class.

Imagine a large tree, with a thick trunk representing the small but powerful aristocracy, and the many smaller branches and leaves symbolizing the vast majority of peasants. The tree's trunk supports the branches, but as time goes on, the branches may grow strong enough to support their own growth, just as the rising middle class began to demand more rights and representation in society.

In Western and parts of Central Europe, the growth of industrial production and trade meant the growth of towns and the emergence of commercial classes whose existence was based on production for the market. Industrialisation started in England but began in countries like France and Germany primarily in the 19th century, leading to the rise of new social groups such as the working class and a middle class consisting of industrialists and businessmen.

The rise of industrialization led to profound changes in society. It created new job opportunities in towns, which attracted people from rural areas. Consequently, a middle class emerged, composed of individuals engaged in trade, manufacturing, and other professions, distinct from both the aristocracy and the working class.

This scenario is much like a small village transforming into a bustling city. As new businesses and factories open up, they attract workers and families seeking better lives. Just as the city grows and develops a diverse population, the emergence of industrialization brought about a mixed economy and social structure.

Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of liberalism. Liberalism emphasized freedom for individuals, equality before the law, and government by consent. However, while advocating for equality, it did not guarantee universal suffrage. Only property-owning men had the right to vote, leaving women and the poor excluded from political power.

Liberalism represented a significant change in political thought, advocating for rights and freedoms that many people had not enjoyed. However, there was a notable contradiction in liberalism's push for equality since it still favored only a portion of the population. This discrepancy became a rallying point for later movements advocating for women's rights and universal suffrage.

Consider a school where only some students can vote on rules or activities based on their grades, while others are excluded despite their desire to express their opinions. This mirrors the situation in early nationalism and liberalism, where only a select few could partake in the decision-making process.