3. KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS EARLY SOCIETIES (с. 600 BCE-600 CЕ)

In the previous chapter we saw that there were several changes in economic and political life between c. 600 BCE and 600 CE. Some of these changes influenced societies as well. For instance, the extension of agriculture into forested areas transformed the lives of forest dwellers; craft specialists often emerged as distinct social groups; the unequal distribution of wealth sharpened social differences.

During the period from approximately 600 BCE to 600 CE, significant changes occurred in both the economy and politics. One notable change was the expansion of agriculture, which moved into areas previously covered by forests. This expansion meant that people living in those forests had their lifestyles altered—many adapted to new agricultural practices. Additionally, as during this period, certain individuals specialized in crafts, they developed into distinct social groups, marked by their skills and trades. Lastly, the uneven distribution of wealth led to increased social stratification—some individuals became very wealthy while others became poorer, emphasizing differences between social classes.

Imagine a community where a new technology, like the internet, is introduced. Some individuals become tech experts, creating a divide between those who understand it and those who don’t. Similarly, in ancient societies, the move to agriculture created a greater divide between those who owned the land (wealthy farmers) and those who did not (landless workers).

Historians often use textual traditions to understand these processes. Some texts lay down norms of social behaviour; others describe and occasionally comment on a wide range of social situations and practices. We can also catch a glimpse of some social actors from inscriptions. As we will see, each text (and inscription) was written from the perspective of specific social categories. So we need to keep in mind who composed what and for whom. We also need to consider the language used, and the ways in which the text circulated. Used carefully, texts allow us to piece together attitudes and practices that shaped social histories.

Historians rely on textual traditions to gather insights into past societies and their organization. Some texts set forth rules about how different members of society should behave, while others provide narratives about various social and cultural practices. Inscriptions, which are often found on monuments or artifacts, give further insights into social dynamics. However, it is crucial to recognize that each document represents a particular viewpoint, shaped by who created it and who their intended audience was. Understanding the language, the purpose of the text, and how it was disseminated can help historians reconstruct the social behaviors and norms of the time.

Consider a diary written during a major political movement—what the writer chooses to include reflects their perspective and experience. Similarly, historical texts reveal more about the authors' social position and audience than just the events they recount. Just like reading different news sources can give you varied perspectives on the same event, analyzing multiple texts helps historians gain a fuller understanding of a society.

In focusing on the Mahabharata, a colossal epic running in its present form into over 100,000 verses with depictions of a wide range of social categories and situations, we draw on one of the richest texts of the subcontinent. It was composed over a period of about 1,000 years (c. 500 BCE onwards), and some of the stories it contains may have been in circulation even earlier. The central story is about two sets of warring cousins. The text also contains sections laying down norms of behaviour for various social groups.

The Mahabharata is one of the longest and most complex epics in the world, consisting of over 100,000 verses. It encompasses diverse social classes and interactions, providing invaluable insights into ancient Indian society. Compiled over roughly a millennium, starting around 500 BCE, it reflects not just stories but also the moral and ethical guidelines for various social groups. The central narrative revolves around a conflict between two families, illustrating themes of duty, righteousness, and the complexities of family relationships.

Think of a long-running TV series that explores the lives and challenges of several families over time, like 'Game of Thrones.' Just as the series reflects social norms and conflicts, the Mahabharata serves a similar function for its time, allowing us to glimpse the values, conflicts, and social dynamics of ancient Indian society.

Occasionally (though not always), the principal characters seem to follow these norms. What does conformity with norms and deviations from them signify?

In the Mahabharata, the characters sometimes adhere to the norms established for their social groups, while at other times, they deviate from those expected behaviors. This distinction is important because it highlights what is valued by society and the consequences of not following those norms. Conformity can reinforce societal values, while deviations can challenge or critique the status quo.

Imagine a student who always follows school rules versus one who sometimes bends them. The rule-follower may be seen as a model student, representing societal expectations, while the rule-bender might spark conversations around authority, individuality, and social change. Similarly, in the Mahabharata, characters' choices challenge or reinforce the values of their time.

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