7 - Key Terms and Definitions

The Agricultural Revolution marks a significant change in human history, where societies shifted from being nomadic hunter-gatherers to establishing permanent farming communities. This transition allowed people to domesticate plants like wheat and barley and animals like sheep and goats. As a result, communities could produce consistent food supplies, leading to population growth and the formation of villages. This change laid the foundation for more complex societies.

Cuneiform is one of the earliest writing systems developed by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia around 3200 BCE. It started as pictographs but evolved into a system that used wedge-shaped symbols on clay tablets. This writing was important for keeping records of trade, legal matters, and literature, allowing for the documentation of history and culture, and it helped unify the different city-states of Mesopotamia.

Ziggurats were massive structures built in ancient Mesopotamia, serving as temples to the gods. These stepped pyramids not only served religious purposes but also functioned as administrative centers for the city-states. They reflected the power of the city and its leader. The design of ziggurats allowed for worshippers to ascend to higher levels, symbolizing a connection to the divine.

The term 'Pharaoh' is used to describe the rulers of ancient Egypt who were seen both as political leaders and divine figures. They were believed to govern with the authority given by the gods and were responsible for maintaining 'ma’at', which represented truth, balance, and order in the universe. This dual role of kingship and divinity helped Egyptians view the ruler as a crucial link between them and the gods.

Ma’at is a central concept in ancient Egyptian culture, embodying the idea of truth and cosmic order. It is believed that maintaining ma’at was essential for the stability of the universe, society, and the afterlife. Both the Pharaoh and citizens were expected to uphold this principle in their daily lives and governance, influencing everything from law to morality.

Mummification was a crucial funerary practice in ancient Egypt, involving the preservation of bodies to prepare them for the afterlife. This process typically included embalming, drying out the body, and wrapping it in linens. They believed that preserving the body was essential for the soul’s journey in the afterlife, allowing for a continued existence beyond death.

These codes represent some of the earliest recorded legal systems in human history. The laws established by kings like Ur-Nammu and Hammurabi addressed various aspects of daily life, including trade, family, and justice, thereby helping to maintain order in society. Hammurabi's Code, in particular, is known for its principle of 'an eye for an eye', outlining specific punishments based on social status, which ensured fairness and accountability.

The grid layout is an urban planning design that consists of straight streets intersecting at right angles, commonly seen in Indus Valley cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. This systematic approach not only optimized movement and organization but also likely facilitated trade, communication, and societal structure, showcasing advanced urban planning skills.

Oracle bones are significant artifacts from the Shang Dynasty in China, used for divination practices. Diviners would inscribe questions on these bones or shells and then heat them until cracks formed, interpreting the patterns for answers from ancestors or deities. This practice also represents the earliest form of Chinese writing, where religious and governmental inquiries were documented.

The Mandate of Heaven is a Chinese political and religious doctrine that justifies the rule of the emperor. It asserts that heaven grants the right to rule based on the ruler's virtue and benevolence. If leaders become corrupt or fail to meet their duties, they may lose this mandate, allowing for rebellion and replacement. This concept was significant in shaping Chinese governance and leadership expectations.

Taotie are distinctive designs found on Shang and Zhou dynasty bronze vessels, often depicting a mask with features resembling those of a monster. This artistic motif carried significant cultural and ritual implications, symbolizing power and perhaps serving protective purposes in ceremonial contexts. While their exact meaning remains a topic of speculation, they embody the artistic sophistication of early Chinese civilization.

Social stratification refers to the hierarchical organization of people within a society based on various factors, such as wealth, lifestyle, and occupation. In ancient civilizations, this often led to distinct classes, including rulers, priests, merchants, and laborers. Understanding social stratification helps us analyze the functioning of societies and their cultures, revealing how power, wealth, and responsibilities are distributed.

An urban center is defined as a densely populated area that serves as a hub for social, economic, and political activities. These centers often have advanced infrastructure and institutions that support the community, including markets, temples, and administrative buildings. The rise of urban centers marked a significant evolution in human civilization, indicating a shift toward more complex and structured societies.