3.4. The Mongols after Genghis Khan

We can divide Mongol expansion after Genghis Khan’s death into two distinct phases: the first which spanned the years 1236-42 when the major gains were in the Russian steppes, Bulghar, Kiev, Poland and Hungary. The second phase including the years 1255-1300 led to the conquest of all of China (1279), Iran, Iraq and Syria. The frontier of the empire stabilised after these campaigns.

After Genghis Khan died, the Mongol Empire continued to expand in two main phases. The first phase lasted from 1236 to 1242 and involved conquests in areas such as Russia and parts of Eastern Europe, including Bulghar, Kiev, Poland, and Hungary. The second phase occurred between 1255 and 1300, leading to their successful conquest of all of China, Iran, Iraq, and Syria. After these campaigns, the borders of the empire became more stable, signifying a peak in their territorial control.

Think of the Mongol Empire like a video game where a player achieves different levels. The first phase is like completing the levels of the game where you conquer and expand across new maps (Russia and Eastern Europe). The second phase represents the ultimate achievement of conquering the entire game world (all of China and surrounding areas). After achieving these levels, the player stabilizes their empire to ensure that they maintain control over their newly acquired territories.

The Mongol military forces met with few reversals in the decades after 1203 but, quite noticeably, after the 1260s the original impetus of campaigns could not be sustained in the West. Although Vienna, and beyond it western Europe, as well as Egypt was within the grasp of Mongol forces, their retreat from the Hungarian steppes and defeat at the hands of the Egyptian forces signalled the emergence of new political trends.

In the years after Genghis Khan, the Mongol military was quite successful and faced few setbacks until around the 1260s. However, their momentum began to decline, particularly in the west where they could not maintain their earlier aggressive campaigns. They faced significant challenges, such as their retreat from the Hungarian steppes and defeat against Egyptian forces, indicating a shift in political circumstances and military capabilities. This retreat marked the beginning of new political dynamics in the regions they had previously threatened.

Imagine a successful sports team that has been winning games consistently. However, after a few seasons, their performance starts slowing down due to injuries and strategy errors. Just like the team might lose important matches and face unexpected challengers, the Mongols faced defeats and the rise of new political factors that impacted their military campaigns.

The first was a consequence of the internal politics of succession within the Mongol family where the descendants of Jochi and Ogodei allied to control the office of the great Khan in the first two generations. These interests were more important than the pursuit of campaigns in Europe.

Conflict over leadership within the royal family of the Mongols played a significant role in their inability to focus on expanding further into Europe. The descendants of Genghis Khan, particularly those from Jochi and Ogodei, often allied with each other to secure power and influence over the title of Great Khan. This internal struggle for control diverted their attention from external military campaigns, highlighting how family dynamics significantly influenced the empire's strategic decisions.

This situation can be compared to a family business where siblings begin to compete for the position of president after the founder retires. While they are busy negotiating who leads, they miss opportunities to expand their business into new markets or deal with challengers, ultimately limiting their growth.

Among the Mongols, and many other nomadic societies as well, all the able-bodied, adult males of the tribe bore arms: they constituted the armed forces when the occasion demanded. The unification of the different Mongol tribes and subsequent campaigns against diverse people introduced new members into Genghis Khan’s army complicating the composition of this relatively small, undifferentiated body into an incredibly heterogeneous mass of people.

In Mongol society, every able-bodied male was expected to be part of the military, which meant that at any time, the adult men could form a unified fighting force. As Genghis Khan expanded his empire, various nomadic tribes joined his ranks, making the Mongol military diverse in terms of backgrounds and cultures. This unification changed the nature of their army, transforming it from a small, homogenous group into a complex and varied force capable of taking on different types of opponents.

Imagine a neighborhood sports team that initially consists of friends playing together. As more players from different backgrounds and skills join the team over time, it transforms from a small group of buddies into a larger, more skilled crew capable of playing various sports styles. Similarly, the Mongol military became more sophisticated and adaptable as different tribes joined, each contributing unique strengths.

The conquered people, however, hardly felt a sense of affinity with their new nomadic masters. During the campaigns in the first half of the thirteenth century, cities were destroyed, agricultural lands laid waste, trade and handicraft production disrupted.

Despite the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the people they conquered often felt a lack of connection to their new rulers. The Mongol campaigns were brutal; cities were ravaged, farms were destroyed, and trade was severely disrupted. This led to widespread suffering among the populace, which not only harmed the economies but also created resentment among the conquered people, making it difficult for the Mongol rulers to integrate these societies into their empire meaningfully.

This can be likened to a corporation that acquires a smaller company but takes such drastic measures during the transition that it destabilizes the entire workforce. Mergers that don't respect the culture or practices of the smaller unit can lead to discontent, harm business operations, and cause a disconnect between the employees and the new leadership.

Once the dust from the campaigns had settled, Europe and China were territorially linked. In the peace ushered in by Mongol conquest (Pax Mongolica) trade connections matured.

After the chaotic conquest period, the Mongol Empire established a period known as Pax Mongolica—a time of peace that allowed for the integration of trade routes connecting Europe and China. This newfound stability encouraged trade, leading to the flourishing of economic connections along the Silk Road. As commerce and travel expanded, it benefited both the Mongols and the newly connected cultures, integrating them into a complex, interlinked economic system.

Consider a new bridge built to connect two isolated towns. As trade flourishes thanks to this bridge, local businesses begin to thrive, people travel more freely, and the towns experience mutual growth. The Pax Mongolica similarly opened the gates of trade and cultural exchange, enriching both the Mongols and the regions they conquered.

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