In-depth Summary
Tribal societies in India had unique customs and shared community ties, distinguishing them from caste-based societies. By the nineteenth century, these groups engaged in different livelihoods:
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Jhum Cultivation: Many were shifting cultivators practicing jhum (shifting) cultivation in hilly and forest areas. They cleared fields by cutting down trees and burning vegetation to prepare the soil. This method depended on their free movement through forests to find new fields when previous ones were depleted.
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Hunting and Gathering: Others lived as hunters and gatherers, relying on forests for survival. Groups like the Khonds engaged in collective hunting, gathering fruits, roots, and herbs for food and medicine, trading forest produce with local markets.
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Pastoralism: Some tribes herded animals, moving seasonally with their herds to areas with adequate grazing.
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Settled Agriculture: Over time, certain tribes began practicing settled agriculture, utilizing plows and establishing rights to the land, which often became concentrated among powerful clan members under British land policies.
The arrival of the British empire increased pressures on tribal societies. British authorities viewed tribal mobility unfavorably, seeking to settle these communities for economic control and revenue generation. New forest laws restricted access to traditional lands, leading to dependence on traders and exploitation by moneylenders, culminating in a cycle of debt. The rising dissatisfaction amongst tribal groups ultimately sparked revolts against colonial rule, notably theMunda movement led by Birsa Munda, which challenged the oppressive structures imposed by outsiders.