New Agricultural Technology
By the eleventh century, European agriculture underwent a revolution characterized by several key technological advancements. The basic wooden plows were replaced by heavy iron-tipped plows with moldboards, allowing for deeper soil cultivation and better utilization of nutrients. Additionally, improvements in animal harnessing methods—transitioning from neck-harnesses to shoulder-harnesses—enabled horses to exert greater pulling power and enhanced farming efficiency.
The most transformative change was the shift from a two-field to a three-field crop rotation system. This allowed peasants to cultivate two fields in a year instead of one, alternating between crops planted in the autumn (such as wheat or rye) and spring (peas, beans, and other crops). This system yielded significantly increased food production, doubling the amount harvested from each unit of land. Consequently, the surplus food allowed for a larger population, facilitated trade, and contributed to the rise of towns as centers of commerce.
These changes not only revolutionized farming but also led to a gradual decline of the feudal relationships based on personal bonds, as economic transactions increasingly transitioned to a money-based system. Lords began seeking cash rent instead of labor, fostering greater independence for peasants and promoting the rise of market towns. However, the financial investments required for such technologies, like wind and water mills, meant that these advancements were often initiated by the lords, though peasants played an active role in adopting new agricultural practices.