From the late 15th century onward, voyages of discovery transformed the known world. Advances in navigation and shipbuilding enabled Europeans—and, to a lesser extent, other societies—to cross oceans and make contact with previously unknown lands. These encounters led to the exchange of goods, ideas, and people, but also to conflict, conquest, and exploitation.

Improvements in Ship Design:

• Caravel: A nimble ship developed by Portuguese shipbuilders in the early 15th century. Equipped with lateen sails (triangular sails that could catch wind more effectively), caravels allowed sailors to tack against the wind and sail into open seas.
• Carrack and Galleon: Larger ocean-going ships that evolved later, combining cargo capacity with sturdier hulls and improved rigging. These vessels enabled longer voyages across the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.

Navigational Instruments:

• Astrolabe: Adapted from earlier Arab and Greek designs, the mariner’s astrolabe measured the angle between the horizon and a celestial body (sun or star) to determine latitude.
• Magnetic Compass: Originating in China and improved by European craftsmen, the compass allowed sailors to maintain direction even when the sky was overcast.
• Portolan Charts: Detailed coastal maps produced by Mediterranean cartographers. Although limited to coastlines, these charts—combined with improved understanding of winds and currents—helped sailors plot courses more accurately.

Search for Valuable Commodities:

• Spices and Silk: For centuries, spices (such as pepper, cinnamon, and cloves) and silk were highly prized in Europe. Traditional overland routes (the Silk Road) were long, expensive, and controlled by intermediaries. Finding a sea route to Asia promised to cut costs and secure direct access to these luxuries.
• Gold and Precious Metals: Tales of gold-rich kingdoms in West Africa and rumors of fabulously wealthy lands to the east lured explorers and investors.

Trade and Commerce:

• Monopolies and Chartered Companies: European rulers granted monopolies to merchants or "chartered companies" (for example, the Portuguese Crown’s support of voyages around Africa). By controlling trade in a particular region, a nation could reap enormous profits and finance further expansion.

Spread of Christianity:

• Missionary Zeal: Catholic monarchs in Spain and Portugal (and later other European nations) believed it was their duty to spread Christianity. Many explorers carried priests or friars whose mission was to evangelize indigenous peoples.
• Reconquista Influence: Having completed the Reconquista (the Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula) in 1492, Spain’s rulers saw overseas exploration as a continuation of their faith-driven expansion.

Competition Among European Powers:

• Rivalries: Spain, Portugal, England, France, and the Netherlands vied for supremacy. When Portuguese navigator Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope (1488) and Vasco da Gama reached India (1498), Spain responded by funding Columbus (1492) to find a westward route.

Massive Population Declines:

• Disease: As noted, smallpox and other European diseases ravaged native populations. In the Caribbean, estimated population declines exceeded 90% within decades.
• Forced Labor and Warfare: Conquistadors, colonial militias, and settlers engaged in campaigns of conquest that resulted in violence, enslavement, and starvation.

Migration and Displacement:

• Resettlement: Survivors of decimated tribes often merged with neighboring groups or fled to remote regions (mountains and forests) to maintain autonomy.