We'll begin by defining clauses: an independent clause contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought, while a dependent clause also contains a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought and relies on an independent clause.

A simple sentence consists of one independent clause (e.g., The cat slept.).

A compound sentence joins two or more independent clauses, typically with a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) or a semicolon (e.g., The cat slept, and the dog barked.).

A complex sentence combines an independent clause with one or more dependent clauses, introduced by a subordinating conjunction (e.g., Because the cat slept, the mouse played.) or a relative pronoun (e.g., The cat, which was black, slept soundly.).

We'll practice transforming sentences from one type to another to add variety to your prose, making it more engaging and mature. For instance, converting two simple sentences into a single complex sentence.

This structure combines elements of both compound and complex sentences. A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause (e.g., While the cat slept, the dog barked loudly, and the mouse played.). We'll learn strategies for constructing and identifying these more intricate sentence forms, which are essential for expressing nuanced ideas and relationships between thoughts.

These sentences express cause-and-effect relationships or hypothetical situations. We'll meticulously cover all four types:

• Type 0 (Zero Conditional): Used for general truths, scientific facts, or habitual actions (If + Present Simple, Present Simple. E.g., If you heat ice, it melts.).
• Type I (First Conditional): Expresses real and possible situations in the present or future (If + Present Simple, Will + Base Verb. E.g., If it rains, we will stay indoors.).
• Type II (Second Conditional): Describes unreal or unlikely situations in the present or future (If + Past Simple, Would + Base Verb. E.g., If I had a million dollars, I would travel the world.).
• Type III (Third Conditional): Refers to impossible past conditions and their hypothetical past results (If + Past Perfect, Would Have + Past Participle. E.g., If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam.).

Understanding and correctly applying the specific tense combinations for each conditional type is crucial for precise meaning.

We'll clearly define active voice (where the subject performs the action, e.g., The student wrote the essay.) and passive voice (where the subject receives the action, e.g., The essay was written by the student.).

The lesson will detail when to effectively use each voice: active for directness, clarity, and dynamism; passive when the actor is unknown, unimportant, or when emphasizing the action's recipient.

Mastering the transformation of sentences from active to passive and vice-versa across all tenses will be a key component, ensuring you can consciously choose the most appropriate voice for your context. We'll also identify and correct common errors like awkward passive constructions or overuse of the passive voice.

This section focuses on the accurate conversion between direct speech (the exact words spoken, enclosed in quotation marks) and indirect/reported speech (paraphrasing what was said).

We'll meticulously go through the necessary changes during conversion:
- Pronoun shifts (e.g., I becomes he/she).
- Tense shifts (e.g., Present Simple in direct speech often becomes Past Simple in indirect speech; Past Simple becomes Past Perfect).
- Changes in time expressions (e.g., today becomes that day, tomorrow becomes the next day) and place expressions (e.g., here becomes there).

Beyond "said," we'll explore a wide array of reporting verbs (e.g., asked, inquired, exclaimed, advised, suggested, ordered, promised, warned, denied, stated, admitted, complained, begged, threatened) and understand how each conveys a specific tone or intention, influencing the reported sentence's structure.

Converting questions, commands/requests, and exclamations from direct to indirect speech will also be thoroughly practiced.