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Introduction to the 8086 Microprocessor Architecture
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Today, we will start exploring the 8086 microprocessor, which is a pivotal advancement over its predecessor, the 8085. Can anyone tell me what makes the 8086 unique?
I think it’s because it has a 16-bit data bus and a 20-bit address bus.
Exactly! The 8086 can access up to 1 MB of memory thanks to this 20-bit address bus. Now, what can you tell me about the architecture's registration system?
It has segment registers like CS, DS, SS, and ES, right?
Yes! Those segment registers help manage memory efficiently. Remember, CS stands for Code Segment, DS for Data Segment, SS for Stack Segment, and ES for Extra Segment. Let's use the acronym 'CDSE' to help us remember.
That makes sense, especially since they relate to different types of data storage!
Good understanding, class! These segments help the 8086 manage memory in a way that improves both flexibility and efficiency.
Understanding Segmented Memory Organization
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Now, let's dive into segmented memory. What do you think segmentation achieves within the 8086 architecture?
It probably allows for better organization of memory, right?
Correct! The 1 MB memory is divided into segments of up to 64KB each. This organization aids in managing code and data separately. Can anyone tell me how we can calculate the physical address from a segment and offset?
Isn’t it a matter of multiplying the segment by 10H and adding the offset?
Spot on! To convert segment:offset into a physical address, we use the formula: Physical Address = (Segment Register Value * 10H) + Offset Address. This really helps with efficient memory access.
And I remember this by thinking of segment as the 'base' and offset as the 'variant'!
Great mnemonic! Remembering the relationship helps cement your understanding of segmented memory organization.
Exploring Addressing Modes
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Next, we will explore the addressing modes. Each mode determines how we calculate the effective address for an operand. Who can list some addressing modes we will cover?
There’s immediate, register, direct, and also register indirect addressing modes.
Excellent! Let’s focus initially on immediate addressing. In this mode, the operand is included in the instruction itself. Can someone give me an example?
We could use something like 'MOV AX, 5000H' to load the value directly into AX.
Absolutely right! Immediate addressing is great for loading constants. How about register addressing?
That's when we use values stored in registers for operations, like 'MOV AX, BX'?
Exactly! Register addressing is fast and efficient for operations. Each mode has its own strengths and use cases. Remembering these helps when writing efficient assembly code.
Hands-On Assembly Programming
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Now, let’s apply what we’ve learned by writing assembly programs that demonstrate these addressing modes. Who can tell me one of the first things we should do?
We need to initialize some memory locations with known values for our tests.
Correct! Preparing the data helps us test our programs effectively. For instance, we can start with the immediate addressing mode, using 'MOV AX, 1234H'. What will be our next step after writing this program?
We then compile and run the program in the simulator to see how the registers react.
Exactly! Observing the changes in registers and memory state confirms whether our code runs correctly. Why do you think this hands-on experience is crucial?
It helps us understand how the addressing modes and microprocessor work together in real-time.
Well said! This practical approach reinforces our theoretical knowledge and builds programming skills.
Review and Conclusion
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As we wrap up, let’s summarize what we've learned about the 8086 microprocessor. What are the main takeaways?
We learned about its architecture, how to calculate physical addresses, and the various addressing modes.
Exactly! We discovered that segmentation allows for efficient memory management, and each addressing mode has unique applications in programming. What do you think is the most important skill moving forward?
Being proficient in writing assembly programs with different addressing modes!
Indeed! Mastering these modes and their applications is essential for efficient coding in 8086 assembly language. Keep practicing!
Introduction & Overview
Read a summary of the section's main ideas. Choose from Basic, Medium, or Detailed.
Quick Overview
Standard
The section details a systematic approach to understanding the 8086 microprocessor by focusing on its architecture, memory organization, and various addressing modes through hands-on exercises with assembly language programming.
Detailed
Detailed Summary
The Procedure section delineates a step-by-step guide for conducting Experiment No. 4, aimed at introducing students to the 8086 microprocessor architecture, its segmented memory organization, and various addressing modes important for data access. The procedure is laid out in two primary parts:
Part A: Familiarization with 8086 Architecture
Students will interact with the 8086 simulator or trainer kit, identifying core registers and understanding how memory is structured and displayed in the simulator. Key activities include:
1. Launching the simulator and locating the registers.
2. Observing the memory view to grasp the segment:offset format of addresses.
3. Running and stepping through a sample assembly program to observe instruction flow.
Part B: Programs Demonstrating Addressing Modes
This part involves writing and executing several assembly language programs, each dedicated to one of the various addressing modes: immediate, direct, register indirect, based, indexed, and string addressing. Students will:
- Write, compile, and execute code snippets demonstrating each addressing mode.
- Monitor register changes and memory content before and after execution, solidifying their understanding of how addressing modes function.
Finally, this procedure encourages hands-on exploration and practical understanding, essential for mastering 8086 assembly language programming.
Audio Book
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Part A: Familiarization with 8086 Architecture
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- Launch the 8086 Simulator (e.g., emu8086): Open the chosen simulator.
- Identify Registers: Locate the display areas for the 8086's internal registers (AX, BX, CX, DX, SP, BP, SI, DI, CS, DS, SS, ES, IP, Flags).
- Observe Memory View: Access the memory view window. Note how memory addresses are typically displayed in segment:offset format (e.g., 1000:0100).
- Observe Code View: Locate the area where assembly instructions are displayed.
- Run a Sample Program (Optional): Load a very simple program (e.g., MOV AX, 0005H; HLT) and single-step through it to observe how the Instruction Pointer (IP) and register contents change.
Detailed Explanation
In this part of the procedure, students will familiarize themselves with the 8086 microprocessor architecture using a simulator. First, they should launch the simulator software and explore the user interface. Once open, they need to identify the various registers, such as AX or BX, which store data temporarily during program execution.
Next, students will look at the memory view, where addresses will be formatted in a segment:offset arrangement, which is crucial for understanding how memory is organized. The program's instructions will be found in the code view. Finally, to cement their understanding, they can run a simple program to see how the Instruction Pointer (IP) updates as different operations are processed.
Examples & Analogies
Think of the simulator like navigating a virtual kitchen. You first have to find where all the utensils (registers) are stored. Once you understand where things are, you can read a recipe (assembly instructions) and start mixing ingredients (running the program). Seeing how the dish (program) comes together after each step helps you appreciate the cooking process (execution of instructions).
Part B: Programs Demonstrating Addressing Modes
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For each addressing mode, write the assembly code, assemble/compile it, and execute it using the simulator/trainer kit. Observe the changes in registers and memory.
Pre-requisite: Initialize some memory locations with known values for testing. For instance, store values starting from DS:1000H.
Detailed Explanation
In Part B, students are tasked with writing assembly code that demonstrates different addressing modes in the 8086 microprocessor. Addressing modes define how the microprocessor accesses data in memory. Before diving into the coding, it's essential to set up initial conditions by placing known values in specific memory locations (like starting at DS:1000H). Students will write code for each addressing mode, compile it, and run it using the simulator. They need to closely monitor how registers change as the code executes, which helps reinforce their understanding of each addressing mode’s functionality.
Examples & Analogies
Imagine you’re playing a board game where different paths (addressing modes) lead to different destinations (data in memory). Before you begin, you need to set up your tokens (initialize memory locations) in known spots on the board. As you play, you track how your moves (assembly code execution) change your position on the board (register values) and what rewards (data) you gain at each destination. Each addressing mode is like a distinct move that gets you to different kinds of rewards in the game.
Immediate Addressing Mode
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● Aim: Load immediate values into registers.
● Assembly Code:
.MODEL SMALL
.STACK 100H
.DATA
; No data defined for this example as values are immediate
.CODE
MAIN PROC FAR
MOV AX, 4C00H ; Exit to DOS (standard termination for .COM/.EXE)
INT 21H
MOV AX, 1234H ; Load immediate word 1234H into AX
MOV BL, 56H ; Load immediate byte 56H into BL
MOV CX, 789AH ; Load immediate word 789AH into CX
HLT ; Halt instruction (or use standard exit)
MAIN ENDP
END MAIN
● Execution & Observation:
○ Set breakpoints after each MOV instruction or single-step.
○ Observe AX register content becomes 1234H.
○ Observe BL register content becomes 56H.
○ Observe CX register content becomes 789AH.
Detailed Explanation
Immediate addressing mode is one of the simplest modes where values are directly specified in the instruction itself. In the provided example, the instruction 'MOV AX, 1234H' means to move the value 1234H directly into the AX register without needing to access any memory. This is very efficient as it allows for quick loading of constants into registers. Students are instructed to use breakpoints during execution to closely watch how the register values change immediately after each instruction is executed.
Examples & Analogies
Think of it like writing a check: when you write a check to pay someone, the value is written directly on the check itself (immediate value) – the recipient doesn't have to look in your bank to see how much to take. In programming, immediate addressing allows the microprocessor to quickly know what value to use without searching through other data.
Register Addressing Mode
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● Aim: Transfer data between registers.
● Assembly Code:
.MODEL SMALL
.STACK 100H
.DATA
.CODE
MAIN PROC FAR
MOV AX, 4C00H
INT 21H
MOV AX, 0001H ; Initialize AX with 0001H
MOV BX, 0002H ; Initialize BX with 0002H
MOV CX, AX ; Copy content of AX to CX (CX becomes 0001H)
ADD DX, BX ; Add content of BX to DX (DX = DX + 0002H)
HLT
MAIN ENDP
END MAIN
● Execution & Observation:
○ After MOV CX, AX, observe CX becomes 0001H.
○ After ADD DX, BX, observe DX is incremented by 0002H.
Detailed Explanation
In register addressing mode, operations are focused on transferring data directly between the internal registers of the CPU. For example, in the line 'MOV CX, AX', the current value in AX is copied to register CX. This method is very efficient as it involves only the processor's internal operations without accessing memory, leading to faster execution times.
Examples & Analogies
Imagine you’re playing a game where you keep your score on multiple cards (registers). If you want to copy your score from one card to another, you simply write it down (transfer). This is like moving data between registers without going through a more complicated process of checking in a notebook (memory).
Direct Addressing Mode
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● Aim: Access data from a specific memory location using its direct offset.
● Assembly Code:
.MODEL SMALL
.STACK 100H
.DATA
MY_VAR WORD 1234H ; Define a word variable initialized with 1234H
MY_BYTE BYTE 56H ; Define a byte variable initialized with 56H
.CODE
MAIN PROC FAR
MOV AX, 4C00H
INT 21H
MOV AX, @DATA ; Load segment address of data segment into AX
MOV DS, AX ; Initialize DS with the data segment address
MOV BX, MY_VAR ; Load content of MY_VAR (1234H) into BX
; Equivalent to MOV BX, [OFFSET MY_VAR]
MOV CL, MY_BYTE ; Load content of MY_BYTE (56H) into CL
; Equivalent to MOV CL, [OFFSET MY_BYTE]
HLT
MAIN ENDP
END MAIN
● Execution & Observation:
○ After MOV DS, AX, observe DS holds the correct data segment address.
○ After MOV BX, MY_VAR, observe BX becomes 1234H.
○ After MOV CL, MY_BYTE, observe CL becomes 56H.
○ Verify the physical addresses accessed: For MY_VAR, it would be DS:OFFSET(MY_VAR).
Detailed Explanation
Direct addressing mode enables the processor to access specific data stored in memory by referring directly to its address. In the example, 'MOV BX, MY_VAR' moves the contents of 'MY_VAR' directly into the BX register. Here, MY_VAR is defined in the data segment and has a known offset. This addressing mode maintains efficiency as it directly accesses the data without any additional manipulation.
Examples & Analogies
Think about it like an address on a package. When a package is sent, it has a direct address where it's going (the specific memory location). The postal service (the processor) uses this address to deliver the package straight to its destination without needing to check with another source first.
Register Indirect Addressing Mode
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● Aim: Access data using the address stored in a register.
● Assembly Code:
.MODEL SMALL
.STACK 100H
.DATA
MY_ARRAY WORD 10H, 20H, 30H ; Define an array of words
.CODE
MAIN PROC FAR
MOV AX, 4C00H
INT 21H
MOV AX, @DATA
MOV DS, AX ; Initialize DS
MOV BX, OFFSET MY_ARRAY ; Load the offset address of MY_ARRAY into BX
MOV AX, [BX] ; Load word from DS:BX (10H) into AX
INC BX ; Increment BX by 1 (points to next byte)
INC BX ; Increment BX by 1 (points to next word)
MOV CX, [BX] ; Load word from DS:BX (20H) into CX
HLT
MAIN ENDP
END MAIN
● Execution & Observation:
○ After MOV BX, OFFSET MY_ARRAY, observe BX holds the offset of MY_ARRAY.
○ After MOV AX, [BX], observe AX becomes 0010H.
○ After the two INC BX instructions, BX will point to the next word element.
○ After MOV CX, [BX], observe CX becomes 0020H.
○ Note: For word (16-bit) access, the offset increments by 2.
Detailed Explanation
Register indirect addressing mode is where the address of the operand is stored in one of the registers (such as BX). In the given example, the value at the address indicated by BX is loaded into AX. Afterward, BX is incremented to point to the next data element in the array. This method is particularly useful for working with arrays or lists, allowing for flexible data access based on the current position in the register.
Examples & Analogies
Imagine if you have a box full of toys (an array) and a friend (register) is holding a pointer to a specific toy inside the box. Instead of going to the box every time to pick out a toy, your friend can adjust their pointer to show you the next toy. This saves time and effort, just like how register indirect addressing allows the CPU to quickly access elements in arrays without recalculating addresses each time.
Based Addressing Mode
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● Aim: Access data using a base register (BX/BP) plus a displacement.
● Assembly Code:
.MODEL SMALL
.STACK 100H
.DATA
MY_RECORD LABEL WORD
FIELD1 WORD 1111H
FIELD2 WORD 2222H
FIELD3 BYTE 33H
.CODE
MAIN PROC FAR
MOV AX, 4C00H
INT 21H
MOV AX, @DATA
MOV DS, AX ; Initialize DS
MOV BX, OFFSET MY_RECORD ; BX points to the start of MY_RECORD
MOV AX, [BX + 0] ; Load FIELD1 (1111H) into AX (displacement 0)
MOV DX, [BX + 2] ; Load FIELD2 (2222H) into DX (displacement 2 bytes from start)
MOV CL, [BX + 4] ; Load FIELD3 (33H) into CL (displacement 4 bytes from start)
HLT
MAIN ENDP
END MAIN
● Execution & Observation:
○ After MOV AX, [BX + 0], observe AX becomes 1111H.
○ After MOV DX, [BX + 2], observe DX becomes 2222H. (Since FIELD1 is a word, FIELD2 starts 2 bytes after FIELD1).
○ After MOV CL, [BX + 4], observe CL becomes 33H. (FIELD1 and FIELD2 are 2 bytes each, so FIELD3 starts 4 bytes after MY_RECORD).
Detailed Explanation
In based addressing mode, an operand's effective address is computed by adding a constant displacement to the content of a base register (BX or BP). For instance, the code 'MOV AX, [BX + 0]' accesses FIELD1 directly since 0 is added to the base address in BX. This addressing mode is particularly useful for handling structures or records, where each field is at a known offset from the base address.
Examples & Analogies
Think of this as a filing cabinet (the base register) where each drawer has specific folders (fields). You know that your first folder is always in the first drawer (displacement 0), the second one is in the next drawer (displacement 2), and so forth. Just like using an index to locate your documents, based addressing allows programmers to easily reach different parts of data structures.
Indexed Addressing Mode
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● Aim: Access data using an index register (SI/DI) plus a displacement.
● Assembly Code:
.MODEL SMALL
.STACK 100H
.DATA
GRADE_ARRAY BYTE 90, 85, 70, 95, 60
.CODE
MAIN PROC FAR
MOV AX, 4C00H
INT 21H
MOV AX, @DATA
MOV DS, AX ; Initialize DS
MOV SI, 0 ; SI points to the first element (offset 0)
MOV AL, GRADE_ARRAY[SI + 0] ; Load 90 into AL (direct indexed)
MOV BL, [SI + 1] ; Load 85 into BL (offset 1 from base address)
MOV CL, [SI + 3] ; Load 95 into CL (offset 3 from base address)
HLT
MAIN ENDP
END MAIN
● Execution & Observation:
○ After MOV AL, GRADE_ARRAY[SI + 0], observe AL becomes 90H.
○ After MOV BL, [SI + 1], observe BL becomes 85H.
○ After MOV CL, [SI + 3], observe CL becomes 95H.
Detailed Explanation
In indexed addressing mode, the effective address of the operand is calculated using the sum of a base address (usually in the data segment) and an index value stored in the SI or DI register. This mode is particularly useful when dealing with arrays, allowing easy access to different elements by changing the index value. For example, 'MOV AL, GRADE_ARRAY[SI + 0]' accesses the first element while 'MOV CL, [SI + 3]' accesses the fourth element.
Examples & Analogies
Think of an index card catalog in a library. Each card represents a book (data element) that can be found by looking up the main topic (base address) and then going to the specific row of books (index). As you adjust your index number, you can quickly navigate through different sections without getting lost.
Based-Indexed Addressing Mode
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● Aim: Access data using a base register (BX/BP) and an index register (SI/DI), with an optional displacement.
● Assembly Code:
.MODEL SMALL
.STACK 100H
.DATA
MATRIX LABEL WORD ; Represents a 2x3 matrix of words
ROW1 DW 10H, 20H, 30H
ROW2 DW 40H, 50H, 60H
.CODE
MAIN PROC FAR
MOV AX, 4C00H
INT 21H
MOV AX, @DATA
MOV DS, AX ; Initialize DS
MOV BX, OFFSET MATRIX ; BX points to the start of the matrix (e.g., ROW1)
MOV SI, 2 * 2 ; SI = 4 (offset to the start of ROW2 if each word is 2 bytes and row 1 has 2 words)
; For a 2x3 matrix of words, a row has 3 words = 6 bytes.
; So, SI for ROW2 would be 6 (offset from MATRIX base).
; Let's assume we want to access ROW2, element 1 (50H)
MOV BX, OFFSET MATRIX ; BX points to the start of the MATRIX (ROW1)
MOV SI, 6 ; SI represents the offset to the beginning of ROW2 (3 words * 2 bytes/word = 6 bytes)
MOV DI, 2 ; DI represents the offset to the 2nd element within a row (1 word * 2 bytes/word = 2 bytes)
MOV AX, [BX + SI + DI] ; Access element at MATRIX[ROW2_OFFSET + ELEMENT_OFFSET]
; This would access MATRIX + 6 + 2 = MATRIX + 8
; Which is the 5th word (index 4) if counting from 0 (MATRIX[0]=10H,
; MATRIX[1]=20H, MATRIX[2]=30H, MATRIX[3]=40H, MATRIX[4]=50H)
; So, AX will get 50H.
HLT
MAIN ENDP
END MAIN
● Execution & Observation:
○ After MOV AX, [BX + SI + DI], observe AX becomes 0050H.
○ Explain how the physical address (DS:BX+SI+DI) is calculated by the CPU.
Detailed Explanation
In based-indexed addressing mode, both a base register and an index register are utilized to calculate the effective address of the operand. In the provided example, the value accessed in the matrix is determined by the sum of the base address in BX, the index value in SI, and any additional displacement via DI. This is especially useful in accessing elements in multi-dimensional arrays.
Examples & Analogies
Imagine a toolbox where each drawer contains a series of tools (data elements). You start at the main toolbox (base) and based on the drawer number (index), you may also want to open individual compartments within that drawer to find specific tools. This addressing mode allows for complex data structures and organizational methods, akin to a professional contractor selecting tools.
String Addressing Mode
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● Aim: Demonstrate basic string operation with implicit addressing.
● Assembly Code:
.MODEL SMALL
.STACK 100H
.DATA
SOURCE_STR DB 'HELLO', 0 ; Source string, null-terminated
DEST_STR DB 10 DUP(?) ; Destination buffer
.CODE
MAIN PROC FAR
MOV AX, 4C00H
INT 21H
MOV AX, @DATA
MOV DS, AX ; Initialize DS
MOV ES, AX ; Initialize ES (for destination)
MOV SI, OFFSET SOURCE_STR ; SI points to source string
MOV DI, OFFSET DEST_STR ; DI points to destination string
CLD ; Clear Direction Flag (DF=0, auto-increment SI, DI)
MOV CX, 6 ; Number of bytes to move (5 letters + null terminator)
REP MOVSB ; Repeat Move String Byte until CX is zero
HLT
MAIN ENDP
END MAIN
● Execution & Observation:
○ Before REP MOVSB, observe content of DEST_STR (random).
○ After REP MOVSB, observe DEST_STR contains 'HELLO' followed by a null byte.
○ Observe SI and DI increment by 6 (for 6 bytes moved).
Detailed Explanation
String addressing mode is specifically designed for operations on strings of characters. The source string is pointed to by the SI register, while the destination buffer is pointed to by the DI register. The direction flag controls whether the registers increment or decrement during operations. In the example, the instruction 'REP MOVSB' tells the CPU to move a block of memory (the string) from the source to the destination until the designated number of bytes has been moved. This mode enhances efficiency when processing strings.
Examples & Analogies
Think of it like copying a list of names from one page to another. You have the original page (source) and an empty sheet (destination). As you copy each name, you keep sliding the new sheet down (incrementing the pointers). Once you finish copying, you’d see the same names have appeared on your new sheet. This is similar to how string operations work with data.
Definitions & Key Concepts
Learn essential terms and foundational ideas that form the basis of the topic.
Key Concepts
-
Architecture: The 8086 microprocessor consists of two main units, the Bus Interface Unit and Execution Unit.
-
Segmented Memory: Memory is organized in segments for flexible management.
-
Addressing Modes: Various addressing modes provide methods for accessing operands efficiently.
Examples & Real-Life Applications
See how the concepts apply in real-world scenarios to understand their practical implications.
Examples
-
Immediate Addressing Example: Using 'MOV AX, 1234H' to load a constant directly into the register.
-
Direct Addressing Example: Using 'MOV AX, [1234H]' to access data directly from a specific memory location.
Memory Aids
Use mnemonics, acronyms, or visual cues to help remember key information more easily.
🎵 Rhymes Time
-
In the 8086, memory's a game, with segments to guide and registers to tame.
📖 Fascinating Stories
-
Imagine a sophisticated librarian (the Bus Interface Unit) directing a steady flow of books (data) to different sections (memory segments) like code, data, and stack. Each section has its dedicated address, making it all orderly.
🧠 Other Memory Gems
-
Think 'CDSE' for Code, Data, Stack, and Extra; these are segment registers to remember best!
🎯 Super Acronyms
Use 'ADRS' to remember
- Addressing Modes
- Data Segmentation
- Registers
- and System efficiency.
Flash Cards
Review key concepts with flashcards.
Glossary of Terms
Review the Definitions for terms.
-
Term: 8086 Microprocessor
Definition:
A 16-bit microprocessor by Intel featuring a 20-bit address bus and segmented memory architecture.
-
Term: Addressing Modes
Definition:
Techniques to specify how the effective address of an operand is computed in memory.
-
Term: Segmented Memory
Definition:
A memory organization method which divides memory into segments, each up to 64KB.
-
Term: Immediate Addressing
Definition:
An addressing mode where the operand is specified directly within the instruction.
-
Term: Register Addressing
Definition:
An addressing mode where the operand is in a register.
-
Term: Direct Addressing
Definition:
An addressing mode where the effective address is directly specified in the instruction.
-
Term: Execution Unit
Definition:
Part of the 8086 that executes instructions and manages data operations.
-
Term: Bus Interface Unit
Definition:
Part of the 8086 that manages communication between the processor and external components.