The Roman Empire, from the birth of Christ to the early seventh century (c. 630s CE), was a vast and diverse entity covering most of Europe, North Africa, and parts of the Fertile Crescent. It was one of two superpowers, alongside the Iranian Empire, which controlled regions from the Caspian Sea to eastern Arabia. These empires, rivals for centuries, were separated by a narrow strip along the Euphrates River and frequently engaged in warfare. The Roman Empire’s heart was the Mediterranean Sea, which facilitated its dominance over surrounding regions, with boundaries defined by the Rhine and Danube Rivers in the north and the Sahara Desert in the south.
The empire was a cultural mosaic, embracing a variety of local languages and traditions, unified by a common political system. Its economy heavily relied on slave labor, which restricted freedom for many, yet women enjoyed stronger legal rights than in many contemporary societies, particularly in property and inheritance. The empire’s social structure divided people into distinct groups, though the text does not specify these classes here. From the fifth century, the western Roman Empire collapsed, but the eastern half, centered in Constantinople, remained prosperous and influential, laying the foundation for the caliphate discussed in later chapters.
Roman historians benefit from a wealth of sources:
- Textual sources: Including Annals (year-by-year historical accounts), letters, speeches, sermons, and laws, written by contemporaries in Greek and Latin.
- Documentary sources: Primarily inscriptions (engraved on stone) and papyri (writing material from the Nile’s papyrus plant), preserving contracts, accounts, and official documents.
- Material remains: Archaeological finds like buildings, pottery, coins, mosaics, and landscapes, often uncovered through excavation or aerial photography.
Each source type provides partial insights, and their combination requires skillful interpretation by historians, particularly papyrologists for papyri and archaeologists for material remains. The empire’s organization, political dynamics, and social divisions are illuminated by these sources, offering a comprehensive view of its history and legacy.