The Early Empire (27 BCE–3rd century CE) represents the first phase of the Roman Empire, distinguished from the later empire by the third century’s crises. Established by Augustus in 27 BCE, the Principate was a system where the emperor, titled Princeps (leading citizen), held supreme authority while maintaining the facade of a republic to respect the Senate, a body of aristocratic landowners. The Senate, though influential, lost significant power as emperors relied on the professional army—a paid force of 600,000 by the 4th century, distinct from the conscripted Persian armies—and provincial elites for governance.
The empire was a cultural mosaic, encompassing diverse territories from Scotland to Armenia, unified by a centralized government. Latin and Greek dominated administration, with a linguistic divide between the Latin-speaking west and Greek-speaking east. The emperor ruled over all subjects, supported by the Senate and army, whose loyalty was critical. The army’s power to influence succession often led to mutinies or civil wars, though stability prevailed in the first two centuries, except for the chaotic Year of the Four Emperors (69 CE).
Succession was typically hereditary or adoptive, ensuring continuity, as seen with Tiberius, Augustus’ adopted heir. External warfare was limited, with Trajan’s brief expansion (113–117 CE) being an exception, as the empire focused on consolidating existing territories. Dependent kingdoms in the Near East were gradually absorbed into provinces, which were taxed and governed through urban centers like Carthage and Alexandria. These cities, managed by local elites, were the backbone of imperial administration, collecting taxes and maintaining order. The rise of provincial elites in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, especially under Gallienus (253–268 CE), shifted power from Italy to regions like Spain and Africa, with senators increasingly excluded from military roles.
Urbanization was key to managing the empire’s 60 million people, with cities enjoying privileges like public baths, entertainment (176 days of spectacula annually), and better food security during famines, as noted by Galen. The empire’s wealth, such as Herod’s kingdom yielding 5.4 million denarii annually, underscored the economic importance of provinces. The decline of Italy’s dominance and the integration of provincial elites into governance marked significant political and economic shifts, setting the stage for the challenges of the Late Empire.