4.4.1. Beyond settled villages

There was more to rural India than sedentary agriculture. Apart from the intensively cultivated provinces in northern and north-western India, huge swathes of forests – dense forest (jangal) or scrubland (kharbandi) – existed all over eastern India, central India, northern India (including the Terai on the Indo-Nepal border), Jharkhand, and in peninsular India down the Western Ghats and the Deccan plateau. Though it is nearly impossible to set an all-India average of the forest cover for this period, informed conjectures based on contemporary sources suggest an average of 40 per cent.

During this period, rural India was not solely comprised of agricultural settlements. A significant portion of the landscape was covered by dense forests and scrublands, which played a crucial role in the economy and lifestyle of specific communities. These forest areas were home to tribes and were rich in biodiversity. The existence of forests indicates that agriculture was supplemented by other forms of livelihood, such as hunting and gathering, which were practiced by tribal populations.

Think of a contemporary example similar to the indigenous tribes in the Amazon rainforest who rely on the forest for their sustenance, gathering fruits, nuts, and hunting animals. Just as these tribes interact with their environment in sustainable ways, the forest dwellers of India also adapted their lifestyles based on the resources available in their forests.

Forest dwellers were termed jangli in contemporary texts. Being jangli, however, did not mean an absence of 'civilisation', as popular usage of the term today seems to connote. Rather, the term described those whose livelihood came from the gathering of forest produce, hunting and shifting agriculture. These activities were largely season specific. Among the Bhils, for example, spring was reserved for collecting forest produce, summer for fishing, the monsoon months for cultivation, and autumn and winter for hunting. Such a sequence presumed and perpetuated mobility, which was a distinctive feature of tribes inhabiting these forests.

Despite being referred to as 'jangli', which might imply a savage or primitive lifestyle, forest dwellers had sophisticated methods of utilizing available resources. Their activities were carefully timed according to seasons: they collected fruits and nuts in spring, fished in summer, cultivated crops during the rainy season, and engaged in hunting during autumn and winter. This seasonal pattern shows the adaptability of these communities to their environment and mitigates the misconception that they were uncivilized. It highlights their deep understanding and connection to their surroundings.

Consider how farmers plant crops in specific seasons based on the climate. Similarly, forest dwellers had their own agricultural seasonal calendar, which helped them make the most of their resources without depleting them.

For the state, the forest was a subversive place – a place of refuge (mawas) for troublemakers. Once again, we turn to Babur who says that jungles provided a good defence 'behind which the people of the pargana become stubbornly rebellious and pay no taxes'.

The Mughal state viewed forests with caution, as these areas offered sanctuary to dissenters and individuals who opposed taxation and state authority. This perspective illustrates the relationship between state governance and rural populations: while the state sought control and revenue from agricultural lands, forests represented areas that were harder to police and manage, thereby posing challenges to authority.

Imagine how modern governments might perceive isolated regions where laws are harder to enforce. Similar to contemporary situations, the Mughal state recognized the potential for unrest in areas they could not easily access, resulting in a perception of threat.

External forces entered the forest in different ways. For instance, the state required elephants for the army. So the peshkash levied from forest people often included a supply of elephants. In the Mughal political ideology, the hunt symbolised the overwhelming concern of the state to relate to all its subjects, rich and poor.

As the Mughal Empire expanded, the demand for resources increased, prompting the state to exploit forest areas. Elephants were particularly important for military campaigns, and collecting them often forced forest dwellers to interact with state officials. This exchange reflected the broader economic strategies of the Mughal state, which sought to exploit all available resources to maintain its power and control over its subjects.

Think of how modern governments might require local resources for infrastructure or military needs in rural areas. Just like modern states may intrude into local ecosystems for resources, Mughal authorities intruded into forested areas for elephants, showcasing a historic pattern of resource extraction.

Regular hunting expeditions, so court historians tell us, enabled the emperor to travel across the extensive territories of his empire and personally attend to the grievances of its inhabitants. The hunt was a subject frequently painted by court artists. The painter resorted to the device of inserting a small scene somewhere in the picture that functioned as a symbol of a harmonious reign.

Hunting was not just a leisure activity for Mughal emperors; it served a political function by allowing them to engage with the populace and project their power. By presenting these hunts as significant events, the emperors reinforced their image as benevolent rulers who cared for the people. The artwork associated with these hunts served to visually communicate the strength and stability of the empire.

Consider how leaders today might visit communities or participate in local festivals to maintain a connection with the people. Similarly, Mughal emperors used hunting excursions as a means to affirm their authority and gather popular support.

Some historians have indeed suggested that sufi saints (pirs) played a major role in the slow acceptance of Islam among agricultural communities emerging in newly colonised places.

The influence of sufi saints indicates cultural interactions between forest dwellers and the state. These saints often brought new religious ideas, which gradually integrated into local cultures. Their role suggests that the interactions among different social groups often included the exchange of beliefs and practices, facilitating a smoother incorporation of agricultural communities into the evolving socio-political landscape.

Just like how modern communities may experience cultural shifts due to the presence of influential community leaders or figures, the sufi saints played a crucial role in merging Islamic practices with local traditions, thus shaping social dynamics.

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