4.4. Forests and Tribes

There was more to rural India than sedentary agriculture. Apart from the intensively cultivated provinces in northern and north-western India, huge swathes of forests – dense forest (jangal) or scrubland (kharbandi) – existed all over eastern India, central India, northern India (including the Terai on the Indo-Nepal border), Jharkhand, and in peninsular India down the Western Ghats and the Deccan plateau.

This chunk introduces the vast areas of forest that existed in India beyond the cultivated lands. While most people think of rural India as primarily made up of farmlands, significant regions were covered by dense forests and scrublands, providing a different kind of livelihood and cultural setting. These forest areas played a crucial role in the lives of many tribal communities who relied on forest produce and practices unique to these ecosystems.

Imagine a busy city with skyscrapers and bustling streets. Now, picture vast green parks within the city. While the concrete buildings are where most people live and work, the parks represent other aspects of life where nature thrives and different communities might engage in activities like picnicking, sports, or simply enjoying nature. Similarly, forests in India offered a different lifestyle beyond agriculture.

Forest dwellers were termed jangli in contemporary texts. Being jangli, however, did not mean an absence of “civilisation”, as popular usage of the term today seems to connote. Rather, the term described those whose livelihood came from the gathering of forest produce, hunting and shifting agriculture.

The term 'jangli' refers to the forest-dwelling communities who had a distinct way of life connected deeply with nature. They were not uncivilized; instead, their lifestyle was organized around seasonal cycles such as gathering nuts, hunting, and farming, which required mobility. This chunk emphasizes that these communities had sophisticated systems for managing their resources and adapting to the environment, highlighting their significance in the broader landscape of agrarian society in India.

Consider indigenous tribes living in the Amazon rainforest, known for their deep connection to the forest and complex knowledge of plants and wildlife. Just as they have structured practices for sustainable living, forest-dwelling communities in India engaged in activities that honored and sustained their environment.

For the state, the forest was a subversive place – a place of refuge (mawas) for troublemakers. Once again, we turn to Babur who says that jungles provided a good defence 'behind which the people of the pargana become stubbornly rebellious and pay no taxes'.

This section discusses the historical view of forests as sectors where state authority could be challenged. Forests were often where marginalized groups could hide from tax collectors and authorities, explaining why rulers were particularly interested in controlling these areas. Babur's observation highlights the tension between state power and the autonomy of forest communities, which had implications for the political landscape during this period.

Think of a game of hide and seek, where some players use the bushes as hiding spots to avoid being tagged. In similar fashion, forest-dwelling tribes functioned as ‘hidden’ populations, sometimes escaping the strict governance and taxes from the empires, thus causing authorities to take an interest in controlling and monitoring these areas.

External forces entered the forest in different ways. For instance, the state required elephants for the army. So the peshkash levied from forest people often included a supply of elephants.

This chunk explains how the state sought to exploit forest resources for military purposes, especially elephants, which were crucial for battle. The notion of 'peshkash' here symbolizes not only a form of tribute but also a forced contribution from forest dwellers to sustain state needs. It represents the intersection of state authority and forest economies, where the needs of the military dictated the extraction of resources from intimate lifestyles.

Consider a modern government needing natural resources like timber or minerals that come from forest areas. Just as communities today may be pressured to give up land or resources for development projects, historical rulers similarly harnessed forest resources for maintaining and expanding their military capabilities.

The spread of commercial agriculture was an important external factor that impinged on the lives of those who lived in the forests. Forest products – like honey, beeswax, and gum lac – were in great demand.

This part highlights how the demand for certain forest products integrated forest communities into the larger economy. As agricultural practices spread, the need for various forest products surged, changing the dynamics of local economies and leading to increased interaction between forest dwellers and agricultural societies. This burgeoning trade also reflected the increasing complexity of economic relations extending beyond simple subsistence.

Imagine a farmer at a farmer’s market selling vegetables while simultaneously a honey farmer sells honey. Both parties depend on each other’s products creating a web of interdependence. Forest dwellers similarly engaged in trade for their goods, establishing a vital connection with agricultural societies.

Social factors also wrought changes in the lives of forest dwellers. Like the 'big men' of the village community, tribes also had their chieftains. Many tribal chiefs had become zamindars, some even became kings.

This final chunk focuses on how forest regions gradually transitioned into more hierarchical structures similar to agrarian societies. The emergence of chieftains who transitioned to feudal or zamindar roles signifies a shift in social dynamics, where tribal leaders consolidated power and wealth, leading to more complex social structures. It reflects an evolution from horizontal tribal organization to more centralized governance, influencing the broader historical trajectory of these communities.

Consider a small local band that expands and begins establishing a pecking order as they grow. With time, someone assumes a leadership role, outlining decisions that affect everyone, mirroring how tribal communities evolved into more structured societies with rulers and classes.

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