15.3 - Sensors and Technologies Used in Inspection

Visual sensors are devices that capture images and visual information to help identify structural issues. The types of cameras mentioned include:
- RGB cameras: These are standard color cameras that can capture images for visual inspection. They help in detecting visible defects like cracks on surfaces.
- Infrared Cameras: These detect heat and are useful for spotting thermal differences in materials, which can indicate problems like insulation failures or moisture intrusion.
- 360° Panoramic Cameras: These provide a wide view of an area, helping inspectors gather comprehensive visual data quickly.
- Thermal Imaging: This technique allows inspectors to see beneath the surface of materials, identifying issues like subsurface delamination or hidden moisture that could lead to structural failures.

Laser scanners and LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) are technologies that use laser beams to measure distances and create detailed 3D models of structures. The process works as follows:
- A laser scanner sends out a laser beam that hits surfaces and reflects back to the sensor. By measuring how long it takes for the laser to return, the system calculates the distance to the surface.
- This process is repeated thousands of times per second, generating a 'point cloud' which is a collection of points in three-dimensional space that represent the surface of the structure.
- The resulting 3D model is incredibly accurate and can be used to monitor deformation over time, helping engineers to understand how structures change and deteriorate.

Ultrasonic testing is a non-destructive testing technique that uses high-frequency sound waves to detect internal flaws in materials. Here's how it works:
- A transducer emits ultrasonic pulses into the material being tested. When these sound waves encounter a flaw (like a crack or void), they are reflected back to the transducer.
- By analyzing the time it takes for the echoes to return and their intensity, inspectors can determine the location and nature of the flaw.
- This technique can be very effective for concrete, where internal defects often can't be seen from the surface.
Additionally, integrating this technology into mobile robots allows for automated, efficient inspections of hard-to-reach areas.

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a geophysical method that uses radar pulses to image the subsurface. It works by sending a radar signal into the ground and recording the reflected signals which bounce back from buried structures or features:
- When the radar waves encounter materials with different dielectric properties (like concrete and air, or concrete and steel rebar), they reflect back to the surface.
- GPR can effectively locate internal features like reinforcing bars (rebars), voids, or areas of delamination in concrete, providing essential information for maintenance and safety inspections.

Acoustic emission sensors are devices that listen for high-frequency sound waves generated by the rapid release of energy in materials. These can indicate active damage such as cracks or micro-failures:
- When stress is applied to a material, it can create small fractures that emit sound waves as they occur. Acoustic emission sensors detect these sound waves and help identify the location and severity of the damage.
- This technology allows for continuous monitoring of structures, providing early warnings before catastrophic failures occur.

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) sensors are devices installed on structures to provide continuous data on their health and performance:
- Strain gauges measure deformation under stress, helping to identify potential failures or weaknesses in a structure.
- Accelerometers monitor vibrations, which can indicate the presence of structural issues.
- Tiltmeters measure the angle of tilt, useful for detecting shifting foundations.
- Corrosion sensors help track the integrity of materials, especially in environments prone to rust and decay. These sensors enable ongoing monitoring, often sending data to maintenance teams in real-time.