1.5. Tracking Social Differences

Archaeologists generally use certain strategies to find out whether there were social or economic differences amongst people living within a particular culture. These include studying burials. You are probably familiar with the massive pyramids of Egypt, some of which were contemporaneous with the Harappan civilisation. Many of these pyramids were royal burials, where enormous quantities of wealth was buried.

At burials in Harappan sites the dead were generally laid in pits. Sometimes, there were differences in the way the burial pit was made – in some instances, the hollowed-out spaces were lined with bricks. Could these variations be an indication of social differences? We are not sure.

Some graves contain pottery and ornaments, perhaps indicating a belief that these could be used in the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burials of both men and women. In fact, in the excavations at the cemetery in Harappa in the mid-1980s, an ornament consisting of three shell rings, a jasper (a kind of semi-precious stone) bead and hundreds of micro beads was found near the skull of a male. In some instances the dead were buried with copper mirrors. But on the whole, it appears that the Harappans did not believe in burying precious things with the dead.

Archaeologists study burial practices to understand social structures in ancient societies. By examining how individuals were buried, such as the types of graves and objects found with them, researchers can infer potential differences in status or wealth among individuals. In Harappa, most burials involved simple pits, but variations in grave construction, such as using bricks, suggest that some individuals may have held a higher status. Artefacts found in graves, like pots and ornaments, imply that people in Harappan society may have had beliefs regarding afterlife, showing care in burial practices. However, a lack of precious items in graves raises questions about their societal values during funerals.

Consider a modern-day funeral. Some people have elaborate ceremonies and are buried with expensive items like jewelry or cars, reflecting their wealth and social status. In contrast, others may have simple ceremonies with few possessions, suggesting different values or resources. Just as we can interpret these differences today, archaeologists analyze ancient burials to draw conclusions about past societies and their social hierarchies.

Another strategy to identify social differences is to study artefacts, which archaeologists broadly classify as utilitarian and luxuries. The first category includes objects of daily use made fairly easily out of ordinary materials such as stone or clay. These include querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers (body scrubbers), etc., and are usually found distributed throughout settlements. Archaeologists assume objects were luxuries if they are rare or made from costly, non-local materials or with complicated technologies. Thus, little pots of faience (a material made of ground sand or silica mixed with colour and a gum and then fired) were probably considered precious because they were difficult to make.

The situation becomes more complicated when we find what seem to be articles of daily use, such as spindle whorls made of rare materials. Do we classify these as utilitarian or luxuries?

If we study the distribution of such artefacts, we find that rare objects made of valuable materials are generally concentrated in large settlements like Mohenjodaro and Harappa and are rarely found in the smaller settlements. For example, miniature pots of faience, perhaps used as perfume bottles, are found mostly in Mohenjodaro and Harappa, and there are none from small settlements like Kalibangan. Gold too was rare, and as at present, probably precious – all the gold jewellery found at Harappan sites was recovered from hoards.

Archaeologists categorize artefacts from ancient settlements to understand social differences. Artefacts are divided into 'utilitarian' (daily use items like pots and tools) and 'luxuries' (rare and expensive items). Luxuries often indicate higher social status, while utilitarian items are common across all levels of society. Many luxury items, like fine pottery, are mostly found in larger cities, hinting that wealth is concentrated there, whereas smaller settlements show simpler lifestyles. This categorization helps researchers identify the socio-economic structure of ancient Harappan society.

Think of a modern city versus a village. In a city, you might find expensive artwork or designer clothing that reflects wealth and social status, whereas a village may have more basic, utilitarian crafts. Just as in today's society, where wealth and resources can dictate access to luxury goods, in ancient Harappan society, the distribution of luxurious artefacts provides insight into the social hierarchy.

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