4. Livelihood Assets and Capital

On the other hand, we have external one which we cannot less control, is an exogenous variable. What are they? External variables is considered in this double structure of vulnerability as exposure. So, exposure to what, some shock or some events like it depends on what kind of shocks, is it natural phenomena or some epidemics or not merely a kind of special exposure but how defenseless like I am for that one. It also defined the social and institutional structure, features of that one that also bring individuals in a particular exposure of threat and like if I am an outcast, I have less networks, it actually increase my exposure to a hazard, to a threat, to a risk.

This chunk discusses the concept of vulnerability in relation to external factors, termed as 'exogenous variables.' These are external shocks or events, such as natural disasters or epidemics, that can significantly impact individuals' livelihoods. It emphasizes that vulnerability is not solely based on the events themselves but also on individual circumstances, like social status or network connections. For instance, someone who is socially excluded may face greater risks during a disaster, highlighting the interplay between social factors and exposure to risk.

Consider a village struck by a hurricane. A person with strong community ties may receive help quickly and recover faster. In contrast, an isolated individual with few connections might struggle to get aid, illustrating how social networks impact vulnerability.

So, double structure of vulnerability, two components; one is the exposure one and this exposure one according to Bohle that we can understand this exposure context from 3 different dimensions. One is human ecological perspective, population dynamics, capacity to manage the environment, population growth, and how human ecology is looking at population growth and the capacity to manage the environment. And also the entitlement theory, the capacity theory and that the people have for control and to get to secure the means of their economic needs. And also the political-economic approach like the question of inequalities or disparities of assets, the power structures. So, these issues, these approaches should be considered when we are talking about exposure.

Here, the text elaborates on the different dimensions of exposure to vulnerability, highlighting three main perspectives. The human ecological perspective examines population dynamics and environmental management, while the entitlement and capacity theories focus on individuals' ability to secure their economic needs. Lastly, the political-economic approach looks at inequalities in asset distribution and power structures. Together, these dimensions provide a comprehensive view of how vulnerability is constructed and understood.

Imagine a small fishing community facing rising sea levels. Those with resources and connections can invest in adaptive technologies, reducing their vulnerability. In contrast, those without resources cannot adapt effectively, showing how economic disparities affect exposure to environmental changes.

Well to understand people's coping, we can also borrow the ideas from crisis and conflict kind of studies, who have the access to assets and resources and how it matter of conflict between individuals and groups or maybe sometimes action theory approaches, how people act, react frequently as a result of social-economic and governmental constraints and model access to assets like a mitigation of vulnerability through access.

This chunk highlights the importance of understanding coping mechanisms in the context of resource access. It suggests looking into crisis and conflict studies to analyze how individuals and groups manage their situation, focusing on the conflicts that arise over access to resources. It discusses how social, economic, and political constraints can influence individual actions and their ability to mitigate vulnerabilities.

Consider how families in a drought-affected area might resort to conflict over water resources. Those with more connections and influence can secure water, while others may struggle, demonstrating how resource access shapes coping strategies.

There is another more prominent and very popular conceptual idea of vulnerability is the sustainable livelihood framework. It is not really on vulnerability, but they are one of the pioneering approach that define and quoted the vulnerability and which was now very regularly used in disaster risk and other risk management. So, this idea came originally developed by famous person Robert Chambers and Conway in 1992, quite long back. Well, they are talking about poverty issues and livelihood issues and which was this model was later on adopted by the DFID Department for international development.

This chunk introduces the sustainable livelihood framework, a key concept in understanding vulnerability. Developed by Robert Chambers and Conway, the framework emphasizes how poverty and livelihood issues intersect with vulnerability, especially in the context of disaster risk management. It is significant in guiding development work, showcasing how people's livelihoods can be affected by various pressures, including natural disasters.

Think of a rural community that relies on agriculture. In recent years, changing weather patterns have affected crop yields, impacting their ability to maintain livelihoods. The sustainable livelihood framework helps analyze how such changes relate to their vulnerability and the effectiveness of support measures.

Their focus is like one poor people and their livelihood. When they are talking about vulnerability, it did not came from, did not come from the disaster perspective, but they are talking defining poor people and their livelihood in case of development and people at the center of their model. People should be put into the center of the development and vulnerability is considered as a kind of shock or a kind of trend or seasonality that influence the capacity of the people to maintain their livelihood.

This section highlights that in the context of sustainable livelihoods, the focus is on individuals and how they maintain their livelihood amidst various shocks and trends. Vulnerability is seen as not just a result of disasters but also of broader development issues. The model suggests that people themselves are central to development strategies and that understanding their livelihoods is vital for effective interventions.

For instance, a fisherman facing dwindling fish stocks due to overfishing or climate change represents how vulnerability can stem not only from immediate disasters but also from ongoing trends in their occupation, showcasing the need for sustainable livelihoods.

So, vulnerability is directly connected with people's livelihood and their capacity to manage their livelihood basically. And two major components here, one is the sustainability, and livelihood. So, a livelihood becomes sustainable in different conditions or a livelihood should be considered as sustainable. When? Let us look. When it is resilient to face any kind of external shocks like natural disasters or epidemics that they can absorb this shock, they can bounce back, they will not finish. Then, one can say that this livelihood or these people are not at risk, they are not vulnerable. Also, someone's livelihood should not depend on external agencies, external support.

This chunk elaborates on how vulnerability is linked to an individual's ability to manage their livelihood effectively. It defines sustainability in livelihoods as the capacity to withstand and recover from shocks such as natural disasters. It emphasizes that a truly sustainable livelihood should be independent and not reliant on external support, as this independence strengthens resilience.

Consider a community that relies solely on foreign aid for food after a disaster. Such dependence can undermine their ability to rebuild. However, a community that learns to farm sustainably and save crops can recover better, demonstrating resilience and sustainability in livelihoods.

So according to this model, people are actually operating, you know they are working in a context of vulnerability. What is the context of vulnerability? So, vulnerability context is defined with 3 characteristics that people are at vulnerable because shock, trends, and seasonality.

This section defines 'vulnerability context' as the setting in which individuals operate, influenced by shocks, trends, and seasonality. It outlines these three characteristics as crucial for understanding why individuals or communities may be vulnerable. Shocks refer to sudden events, trends to longer-term changes, and seasonality relates to predictable fluctuations that can impact livelihoods.

Imagine a farmer who faces seasonal droughts (shock) every few years, with an increasing trend of less rainfall over time (trend), and who also knows that crop prices fluctuate seasonally (seasonality). Understanding these contexts helps us see why this farmer may struggle with food security.

So what are the shocks? One is the natural shocks like flood, drought, and cyclone. And health shocks like epidemic like cholera or even dengue let us say, or economic shocks like some financial recessions or maybe death in the family for a household or maybe violence like civil war in case of Syria or in many other countries in case of Sri Lanka when they were in civil war or in case of Bosnia. So, people who are at civil war that really put the individuals as a vulnerable and violence and civil unrest. These are all considered to be shocks that are increasing that under which people are living in a vulnerable context.

This chunk identifies different types of shocks that contribute to vulnerability, categorizing them into natural, health, economic, and violence-related shocks. Natural shocks include events like floods and droughts, while health shocks refer to outbreaks of diseases. Economic shocks can stem from financial crises or personal losses, such as the death of a breadwinner. The mention of civil unrest highlights how conflict can significantly heighten vulnerability.

For example, a community hit by a severe flood faces immediate displacement and damage (natural shock), while an outbreak of cholera (health shock) complicates recovery efforts, leading to increased vulnerability overall. This illustrates how various shocks interact to exacerbate conditions.

Another one is the seasonality and seasonal shift in price like the price of the crops of the food for the agricultural labor or the productions because of production is low or high, because of climate change maybe the production is not so high this year. Or maybe the food availability or employment opportunity, how many days I have employment opportunity in a particular season, maybe in winter I do not have any job in as agricultural labor because nobody is harvesting this time and we have better job during rainy days. And trends and changes like the population, if the population is increasing rapidly, then also it could be a threat or putting people into vulnerable context. Also, in case of some countries like in case of Japan or in case of many European countries, there is a question about the populations. There are only few people, young people in any community. So, it can also increase the vulnerability of that community. Environmental change or some technological changes, market and trades, globalization, and government and policies like some governments are stable, some governments are not stable. So, if the political situation is in a turmoil that will of course increase people's vulnerability.

This section further explores the concept of seasonality and the impact of trends on vulnerability. It explains how seasonal changes in crop prices and employment opportunities can significantly affect agricultural laborers. Additionally, it discusses the various trends, such as population dynamics or governmental stability, that may exacerbate vulnerability. Rapid population growth can strain resources, while demographic changes can alter the labor landscape.

Think of a community that relies heavily on seasonal agriculture. If climate change results in inconsistent rainfall, leading to poor crop yields, farmers may struggle financially during lean seasons, highlighting how trends can create ongoing vulnerability.

So, 3 conditions are important to define people's direct vulnerable context. One is the shock, trend and seasonality. Now, this vulnerability context actually, this is the poor people and is affecting their household capacity or their own individual capacity. So, they have actually different kind of capitals or capacities. One is a human capital, social capital, financial capital and physical capital.

In this chunk, the discussion centers on the conditions that characterize vulnerability: shocks, trends, and seasonality. These elements affect individuals' capacities to cope with hardships. The text introduces the concept of 'capitals' or resources that people possess, categorizing them into human, social, financial, and physical capital. Understanding these capitals helps assess the vulnerability of individuals and communities.

For instance, a community with strong social ties (social capital) may better withstand economic shocks, as individuals can support one another during tough times, unlike a community with weak ties where individuals might struggle alone.

So, now they both are interlinked, vulnerability, and capital. And also capital define that how and what extent they are vulnerable to particular shock. So, how one look into these livelihood assets or capitals? Livelihood assets we say that there are 5 capitals; human capital, social capital, physical capital, financial capital, and natural capital.

This section emphasizes the interconnectedness of vulnerability and capital. It highlights the five types of capitals that form the basis of a sustainable livelihood framework: human, social, physical, financial, and natural capital. Each type of capital influences individuals' vulnerability levels, determining how well they can recover from shocks.

Think of a business owner who possesses strong financial capital (money), human capital (skills), and social capital (networks). When faced with an economic downturn, their diverse assets help them adapt better than a business with limited resources, illustrating the importance of varied capitals.

And human capital; knowledge and skill like education or good health I am capable person, nutrition I am getting enough food, nutritious food, ability to labor I can work, I can give my labor, I can adapt, in any situation, I can adapt culturally.

This chunk defines human capital as the skills, knowledge, health, and nutrition of individuals. These attributes are critical for determining someone's ability to engage in productive activities, adapt to changes, and sustain their livelihoods. High human capital means greater resilience to shocks.

Consider a healthy farmer with formal education and skills in modern farming methods. This farmer is likely better equipped to face challenges, such as adapting to changing market demands or environmental issues, than a farmer with limited education and knowledge.

And social capital, of course my network, network works very well, my human networks, connections with each other or membership in a group, formal and informal. Like I can go to some club or maybe in a puja or in so any kind of formal and informal relationship defines my social capital. If I am outcasted, I am not included in any particular group then I feel that I am isolated; I have less capacity to absorb the shocks or absorb the threat.

This section focuses on social capital, which encompasses the social networks and relationships that individuals have. Strong social capital allows for mutual support and resource sharing, which is vital during crises. Conversely, social isolation can increase vulnerability.

Imagine a neighborhood where everyone knows each other and shares resources. During a storm, people can easily help each other secure their homes or provide shelter. In contrast, a lone resident without connections may struggle, demonstrating how vital social capital is in fostering resilience.

Trust and mutual support, during emergency situations or any situations, we need to cooperate with each other and we need to trust each other because trust minimize the uncertainty so trust and mutual support between individuals in a group is very important and this is one of the social capital, and also it depends on the social capital, the rules and sanctions, social norms are there. Some people whether the people have open access to get all the opportunities to maintain their livelihood or not. In case of very hierarchical societies, the low caste people or low-class people are restricted.

This chunk emphasizes the importance of trust, mutual support, and social networks in enhancing social capital. It mentions how trust can reduce uncertainty in emergency situations. Social norms and structures can either facilitate or restrict individuals' access to opportunities, impacting overall vulnerability, particularly for marginalized groups.

Think about a community where trust is fostered through group activities and shared resources. In a crisis, such communities can quickly mobilize resources to help each other. Conversely, in a community where mistrust exists, individuals may hesitate to help, amplifying vulnerability.

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