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5. Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics explores the relationships between heat, work, and energy changes in macroscopic systems. The laws of thermodynamics govern these exchanges under various conditions, extracting energy transformations that occur during chemical reactions and phase changes. Internal energy, enthalpy, and spontaneity criteria, represented through Gibbs free energy, are crucial for understanding reaction behavior and equilibrium.

Sections

  • 5

    Thermodynamics

    This section focuses on the fundamental principles of thermodynamics, including energy changes in chemical reactions and the laws governing these transformations.

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  • 5.1

    Thermodynamic Terms

    This section introduces essential terms and concepts in thermodynamics, such as the system and surroundings, types of systems, and fundamental state functions.

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  • 5.1.1

    The System And The Surroundings

    This section defines thermodynamic systems and their surroundings, outlining the classifications of systems based on matter and energy exchange.

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  • 5.1.2

    Types Of The System

    This section categorizes thermodynamic systems into open, closed, and isolated systems based on the exchange of matter and energy with their surroundings.

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  • 5.1.2.1

    Open System

    An open system allows the exchange of matter and energy with its surroundings, illustrating fundamental principles of thermodynamics.

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  • 5.1.2.2

    Closed System

    A closed system in thermodynamics allows for the exchange of energy but not matter between the system and its surroundings.

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  • 5.1.2.3

    Isolated System

    An isolated system is defined as a system where neither matter nor energy can be exchanged with its surroundings, as exemplified by a thermos flask.

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  • 5.1.3

    The State Of The System

    The state of a thermodynamic system is defined by its macroscopic properties such as pressure, volume, and temperature, which are categorized as state functions.

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  • 5.1.4

    The Internal Energy As A State Function

    Internal energy is a key thermodynamic state function, representing the total energy of a system, which can change due to heat transfer, work done, or matter exchange.

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  • 5.1.4.a

    (A) Work

    This section explores the concept of work done on a system and its impact on internal energy in adiabatic processes.

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  • 5.1.4.b

    Heat

    Heat represents the energy transfer that occurs due to a temperature difference between systems, crucial in understanding thermodynamic processes.

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  • 5.1.4.c

    The General Case

    This section introduces the general case of internal energy changes in thermodynamics, where changes are influenced by both heat transfer and work done.

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  • 5.2

    Applications

    This section discusses the applications of thermodynamics in understanding energy changes in chemical reactions and the work done by gases.

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  • 5.2.1

    Work

    This section explores mechanical work, particularly pressure-volume work done on an ideal gas within a cylinder.

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  • 5.2.2

    Enthalpy, H

    Enthalpy is a crucial state function that measures the total heat content of a system at constant pressure, allowing for the analysis of heat transfer during chemical reactions.

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  • 5.2.2.a

    A Useful New State Function

    This section introduces the concept of enthalpy as a new state function useful for measuring heat changes at constant pressure.

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  • 5.2.2.b

    Extensive And Intensive Properties

    This section introduces the concept of extensive and intensive properties in thermodynamics, highlighting their fundamental differences.

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  • 5.2.2.c

    Heat Capacity

    Heat capacity is a measure of the heat energy required to change the temperature of a substance.

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  • 5.2.2.d

    The Relationship Between Cp And Cv

    This section explores the relationship between the heat capacities at constant pressure (Cp) and constant volume (CV) for ideal gases.

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  • 5.3

    Measurement Of ∆u And ∆h: Calorimetry

    This section discusses the measurement of internal energy change (∆U) and enthalpy change (∆H) using calorimetry.

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  • 5.3.a

    ∆u Measurements

    This section discusses the measurement of changes in internal energy (∆U) associated with chemical reactions, highlighting the significance of calorimetry.

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  • 5.3.b

    ∆h Measurements

    This section discusses the measurement of enthalpy changes (∆H) in chemical reactions under constant pressure and different conditions of a calorimeter.

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  • 5.4

    Enthalpy Change, ∆rh Of A Reaction – Reaction Enthalpy

    This section discusses the concept of reaction enthalpy (∆rH), explaining how it is calculated and its significance in chemical reactions.

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  • 5.4.1

    Standard Enthalpy Of Reactions

    This section explores the concept of enthalpy changes during chemical reactions, emphasizing the significance of standard enthalpy.

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  • 5.4.2

    Enthalpy Changes During Phase Transformations

    This section explores the concept of enthalpy changes during phase transformations, particularly focusing on processes such as melting, vaporization, and sublimation, which involve energy exchanges at constant temperature and pressure.

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  • 5.4.3

    Standard Enthalpy Of Formation

    Standard enthalpy of formation quantifies the heat change during the formation of one mole of a compound from its elements in their standard states.

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  • 5.4.4

    Thermochemical Equations

    Thermochemical equations represent chemical reactions along with their associated energy changes, specifically enthalpy changes.

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  • 5.4.5

    Hess's Law Of Constant Heat Summation

    Hess’s Law states that the total enthalpy change of a chemical reaction is the sum of the enthalpy changes for the individual steps, regardless of the path taken.

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  • 5.5

    Enthalpies For Different Types Of Reactions

    This section explores different types of enthalpy changes associated with various chemical reactions, emphasizing the significance and calculations of enthalpy in thermodynamics.

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  • 5.5.a

    Standard Enthalpy Of Combustion

    The standard enthalpy of combustion measures the energy change during the complete combustion of a substance at standard conditions.

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  • 5.5.b

    Enthalpy Of Atomization

    The section discusses the concept of enthalpy of atomization, highlighting its significance in understanding thermodynamic principles related to energy changes in chemical reactions.

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  • 5.5.c

    Bond Enthalpy

    Bond enthalpy refers to the energy required to break a bond in a molecule, playing a crucial role in understanding chemical reactions.

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  • 5.5.d

    Lattice Enthalpy

    Lattice enthalpy refers to the energy change occurring when one mole of an ionic compound is dissociated into gaseous ions.

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  • 5.5.e

    Enthalpy Of Solution

    This section discusses the enthalpy of solution, emphasizing the heat change associated with dissolving one mole of a substance in a solvent.

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  • 5.5.f

    Enthalpy Of Dilution

    The enthalpy of dilution refers to the heat change when a specific amount of solute is added to a solvent at constant temperature and pressure.

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  • 5.6

    Spontaneity

    This section explores the concept of spontaneity in thermodynamic processes, emphasizing the role of entropy and Gibbs energy in determining spontaneity.

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  • 5.6.1

    Is Decrease In Enthalpy A Criterion For Spontaneity ?

    The section explores the relationship between enthalpy changes and the spontaneity of chemical reactions, emphasizing that a decrease in enthalpy is not the sole criterion for spontaneity.

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  • 5.6.2

    Entropy And Spontaneity

    This section discusses the concepts of entropy and spontaneity in thermodynamics, highlighting their roles in determining the direction of chemical reactions.

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  • 5.6.3

    Gibbs Energy And Spontaneity

    This section explores the significance of Gibbs energy in determining the spontaneity of chemical reactions and its relationship with enthalpy and entropy.

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  • 5.6.4

    Entropy And Second Law Of Thermodynamics

    The second law of thermodynamics focuses on the concept of entropy and its implications for spontaneous processes, establishing a fundamental criterion related to energy dispersal within isolated systems.

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  • 5.6.5

    Absolute Entropy And Third Law Of Thermodynamics

    The section discusses the concept of absolute entropy and introduces the Third Law of Thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of a pure crystalline substance approaches zero at absolute zero temperature.

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  • 5.7

    Gibbs Energy And Equilibrium

    This section discusses Gibbs energy, its role in determining spontaneity in chemical reactions, and its relationship to equilibrium.

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  • 5.8

    Exercises

    This section contains exercises that reinforce the principles of thermodynamics, exploring energy changes in chemical reactions.

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References

NCERT Study Material

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